Celtic farmers were the backbone of Celtic society. Without the goods produced by farmers little else would have been possible. For instance, a warrior class cannot be supported for long by a pillage and burn approach (which is the way Caesar depicted the Celts). To the contrary, the archeological record is extremely clear. The Celts’ agricultural and pastoral farming practices were superior in many regards to other ancient societies’ farming practices.
As to agricultural practices, most farmers of that time used a wooden plow and went over fields twice to insure the soil was turned over completely. The Celts used a metal plow with a coulter which was far more durable than the wooden plow and allowed them to turn the soil over in one pass. They were also the first to develop a harvesting machine. It was pushed by oxen, fitted with knives and a box. The knives cut the grain and the box caught it….very impressive. They also used field rotation, irrigation, fertilizer, and a variety of iron implements. Their wheeled carts and roads allowed them to deliver their goods to markets quite efficiently.
The Celts also developed ways to store their products. Grains were stored in underground bins, meat was packed in salt.
Many of these practices were well in advance of other ancient societies and allowed the Celts to engage in advanced artistic enterprises, educational endeavors, and so forth because not everyone was needed to grow the food necessary to sustain life.
The Celts were quite advanced vis a vis medical practice. For instance, their surgical instruments included saws, retractors, stethoscopes, probes, and skull drills. The archaeological evidence on the use of some of these tools is unequivocal (skull drills, for instance).
In addition to neurological operations, it appears the Celts performed cesarean sections and amputations. They also employed a variety of herbal medicines.
Medical practice was intertwined with beliefs about the supernatural. Thus, treatment was also combined with votive offerings, etc.
Very important aspects of medical practice were the Brehon Laws that applied to it. For example, only qualified physicians were allowed to practice. Clear rules were established vis a vis what was required to become a qualified physician. Penalties were severe for unqualified physicians who practiced medicine. These laws also set forth the way hospitals were to be erected (4 doors, near water, etc.). The laws also declared these facilities were to be free of charge and detailed precisely who had to pay for and maintain the facilities.
There is certainly dispute over the Celts’ fighting ability and weaponry. Some scholars have argued that the enemies of the Celts felt their tactics and weaponry were inferior. In essence, their enemies found them to be inferior on all counts. However, the archaeological record points to superiority on the Celts’ part vis a vis weaponry. Since we tend to be biased in favor of the Celts in this account, we’ll discuss the Celts’ weaponry as it is revealed in the archaeological record.
The helmet. The Celts were the first to use cheek guards.
The shield. The Celts were the first to use a large shield that was used to protect the entire body (the small forearm shield used by others was not nearly as effective in protecting the body as the long full body shield used by the Celts). The shield could also be used as a weapon and be interlocked with other shields to present a unified front. It is quite clear from the archeological record that the Romans adopted this shield and tactic from the Celts.
Chain mail. The Celts appear to be the first to have developed the use of a relatively light chain mail to protect the body.
Chariot. The Celts used chariots to great effect during battles against the Romans (using armament on the wheels). They slashed through the front lines and created havoc. Once that effect had been achieved. The warrior left the chariot and fought as infantry. The chariot was left in the hands of a companion. If the occasion warranted, the charioteer would charge forth and pick up the warrior or engage in battle if the warrior was killed.
Cavalry. The Celts used a tri-part cavalry system: the warrior and two handlers. All three rode horses. If the warrior’s horse was injured, a handler brought up another. If the warrior was killed, one of the handlers took his place. They also picketed the horses and fought as infantry if need be.
The role Celtic Women played in the Celtic history is in some dispute but not as much dispute as many other aspects of Celtic history. In general, Celtic Women had more rights and privileges than women in other cultures of the time. Importantly, Celtic Women could own as well as inherit property.
Women entered marriage with a certain dowry. The husband was expected to match that dowry. The resultant property was managed in a joint account. Upon the death of either, the entire investment went to the survivor. Celtic Women had standing in courts, could hold any office (including supreme ruler). Women could not be raped and could seek revenge on an adulterous husband. Celtic Women were also protected by law from sexual harassment.
There is little doubt that Celtic women were warriors and led in battle. In fact, some of Rome’s worst defeats were at the hands of Celtic Women leaders/tacticians (see for instance the glorious exploits of Boudicca).
Celtic women led the way in many regards for the women of today. For instance, one of the earliest pieces of “feminist” literature (Banshenchas….a genealogy of leading women) can be traced to Celtic Ireland in the 12th century.
One design that seems to embody the power of women in Celtic society is the threefold pattern below. Each fold refers the stages in many women’s lives (maid, mother,
The Druids were held in high regard by the Celts. They held a position in society just below that of Kings/Queens. However, there is considerable discord over the role of the Druids in Celtic society. Some argue they served primarily religious purposes but others suggest their roles involved broader intellectual pursuits.
Unfortunately, the Druids did not detail their role in written form until well after the Christianity had become the religious doctrine of the Celts. Thus, what is said about the Druids in those texts is colored by the adoption of Christian values and beliefs. It can be safely claimed that the Druids played an important role in Celtic life. They most certainly led the religious aspects of the culture and were used to arbitrate disputes…. beyond that it is difficult to determine how far their influence went.
The meaning of the term “Druid” supports the view that they were intellectual leaders as well as religious leaders. Dru is related to “oak” and uid related to “knowledge” (i.e., oak knowledge). A more general interpretation would be “one whose knowledge is great”.
It can be said that the current Druid movements are not based on surviving Druid texts because none exist (the Druids passed on the belief structure orally and maintained a proscription against putting their beliefs into written form to safeguard them from outsiders).
The matter of who would lead a Celtic group seems to have been decided by a prominent group of nobles rather than by divine right or primogeniture (i.e., the throne being passed to the eldest son or daughter as the case may be).
Although these data are circumstantial (recall that the Celts left no written record), it appears that Kings were chosen on the basis of who was the fittest mentally and physically for the job rather than by kinship to the current King. The King was expected to be strong in order to insure the survival of the group. As you would expect, the King’s successor was chosen prior to his death to insure a peaceful transition of power. There is clear evidence that some rulers were women, but the case for a matrilineal Kingship is weak. It is likely that in the absence of a suitable man in a fundamentally patrilineal system that a strong woman emerged as the most suitable ruler. These rulers were of noble birth in that the ruler was selected from among the ruling elite not from any other strata of society.
The caste system among the Celts be they Irish, Scottish, Welch, etc. was similar to the caste system in place in most of the ancient world. At the bottom was the menial class…herdsman, house servants, and so forth. Next, came the warriors and, then, the intellectual class (judges, doctors, priests (druids, that is). At the top were the Kings and Queens. There were a whole range of Kings and Queens…not just one. The origin of the terms associated with Kings and Queens has to do with reaching out. The reaching out involved reaching out to all his/her people in order to protect them.
People often ask “What’s the big deal with the Celts, anyway?” At around 400 B.C., the Celts controlled most of Europe (see graphic, an image found on pinterest) and continue to be the primary controlling influence in 7 major Celtic areas today (Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, Brittany, and Galicia). Over the course of three millennia the Celts have influenced the development of world culture in a variety of ways. The rest of this book will touch on some Celtic contributions to society. In the process, it will be evident how the Celts shaped and are shaping world culture. I’d say that makes them a pretty big deal!
One could write an entire book about the Celts’ influence. I will content myself to highlight one event in Celtic history that highlights many characteristics of the Celtic people. The Celtic occupation of Rome is instructive in many ways. It tells us much about the character of the Celts and their sense of honor and justice. Anyway, here it is in a nutshell.
In essence, a Celtic tribe, the Senones, crossed the Apennines in search of new land to settle. They camped outside the Etruscan city of Clusium and petitioned the city leaders for such land. The Etrusans were suspicious of these strangers and asked Rome for assistance (Rome having recently conquered the Etruscians). The Romans responded by sending ambassadors to talk to the Celts. The talks broke down. Against all rules, the Roman ambassadors took up arms against the Celts and killed a Celtic chieftain. The Celts were outraged and sent ambassadors to Rome to protest.
Although some Romans felt an apology was in order, most were not so inclined (due to the influence of the families of the Fabii brothers…the ones who were the ambassadors sent to parlay between the Etruscians and Celts). This enraged the Celts. Thus, they decided to march on Rome. On the way, they did not harm anyone or take anything. They met the Roman army outside Rome and defeated it. They then occupied the city for several months until an apology was issued along with some tribute. They then left of their own accord.
One can find other accounts of this event but most of those accounts are by those who had reason to hate or fear the Celts. In those accounts, the Celts are depicted as savages. However, more neutral accounts indicate the Celts were quite civilized and had a high sense of honor and justice.
Now to the other side of the equation, this is a brief accounting of how the Romans treated the Celts in the ensuing centuries. One of the puzzling aspects of Celtic History is how they lost to the Romans. As noted above, at one point the Celts controlled much of Europe and even occupied Rome. Their weapons were superior to the Romans, their battle tactics superior…. so how did the Romans (over a few centuries) defeat the Celts so resoundingly?
Here are some of the reasons. Rome used a central government. They did not operate on an individual tribal level. The Celts did. Thus, the Romans (once a course of action was decided) did not quibble. The Celts did. A tribe might decide to give up on a military campaign and go home at any time. Not so, the Romans. If you decided to leave, you would be killed. Roman discipline is legendary. The Roman soldier was said to fear reprisal from his own ranks more so than any enemy. In my view, this was the primary reason the Romans had an advantage militarily over the Celts.
Also, the Romans adopted superior weapons whenever they encountered them (the Celtic helmet, shield, possibly the sword). They also adapted military tactics. Thus, the Celts advantages from these quarters were negated over time.
Julius Caesar, the person most responsible for decimating the Celts, used the Celts tribal nature to great advantage. He would offer to assist one tribe against another tribe they had a disagreement with. Once accepted, Caesar helped them defeat that tribe. However, he then attacked the tribe he had assisted. You might say Caesar took “divide and conquer” to its highest level. For a more detailed account follow this link: http://www.historynet.com/empire-vs-tribe-the-roman-empire-and-the-celts…
